Custom Yard Design La Mesa

Custom Yard Design La Mesa

Rock Landscaping La Mesa

Understanding Landscaping in La Mesa

The Nature of La Mesa Landscaping

Landscaping in La Mesa, a city located in Southern California, is characterized by an emphasis on drought-resistant plants and efficient water usage due to the area's warm climate. Landscaping Services In La Mesa . This includes utilizing native plants such as succulents and cactuses which can thrive under the hot sun while requiring minimal watering. Landscapers also incorporate features like rock gardens and gravel paths that contribute to water conservation.

Implementing Sustainable Practices

Sustainability plays a crucial role in landscaping in La Mesa. Many landscapers are adopting eco-friendly practices such as using organic fertilizers and reducing pesticide use to maintain the health of the soil. They are also implementing rainwater harvesting systems and drip irrigation methods to conserve water, further contributing to sustainability.

Eye for Aesthetics

Despite these functional requirements, aesthetics aren’t compromised when it comes to landscaping in La Mesa. Professionals create stunning landscapes by artistically arranging native plants with vibrant colors and unique shapes alongside stylish hardscape features. The goal is always to create outdoor spaces that not only survive but flourish in the local climate while offering beauty and enjoyment for residents.

History of Landscaping in La Mesa

Early Landscaping and Spanish Influence

The history of landscaping in La Mesa, California, is deeply rooted in its cultural heritage. The city's early landscaping was greatly influenced by the Spanish settlers who introduced various plant species and landscape designs. Their love for ornate courtyards and vibrant flower gardens played a significant role in shaping La Mesa's initial landscape outlook.

Mission Revival Style

In the late 19th century, the Mission Revival style became popular in La Mesa. This architectural style heavily influenced landscaping trends, with many homes and public spaces incorporating drought-tolerant plants and hardscape features reminiscent of the missions. This period saw a shift towards more sustainable practices that resonated with La Mesa's semi-arid climate.

Modern Landscaping Trends

In recent years, the landscaping scene in La Mesa has continued to evolve as residents incorporate modern design elements while still maintaining an appreciation for the region’s historical roots. Eco-friendly techniques are now widely adopted including xeriscaping — a method which minimizes water use by utilizing native, drought-resistant plants. These advancements reflect both an adherence to tradition and an adaptive approach to environmental concerns.

The Significance of Landscaping in La Mesa

Enhancing Aesthetic Appeal

Landscaping holds immense significance in the city of La Mesa, California. The city is renowned for its beautiful scenery and aesthetic appeal, much of which can be attributed to well-maintained landscapes. Property owners often invest in landscaping services to enhance their home's curb appeal, making it more inviting and aesthetically pleasing. This not only benefits the individual homeowner but also contributes to the overall beauty of the city.

Increasing Property Value

In addition to improving aesthetics, landscaping plays a crucial role in increasing property value in La Mesa. A well-planned and maintained landscape can significantly enhance a property's market value. Realtors often emphasize that homes with professional landscaping tend to sell faster and at higher prices, making it a worthwhile investment for homeowners planning on selling or leasing their properties.

Promoting Environmental Health

Lastly, landscaping has environmental implications as well. It aids in reducing pollution by filtering pollutants from the air while providing oxygen. Landscaping also helps control erosion, reducing loss of soils in waterways and decreasing flooding. Thus, through professional landscaping efforts, residents of La Mesa contribute positively towards environmental sustainability while enjoying an enhanced living environment.

Essential Elements of Landscaping in La Mesa

Plant Selection and Arrangement

In the process of landscaping in La Mesa, plant selection and arrangement play a crucial role. Given La Mesa's Mediterranean climate, it is beneficial to opt for drought-tolerant plants such as lavender, rosemary, or sage that can withstand high temperatures during summer months. These plants not only add color and texture to a landscape but also promote sustainability due to their low maintenance requirements. Additionally, arranging these plants in an aesthetically pleasing manner enhances the overall visual appeal of the landscape.

Water Features and Hardscape Elements

Another vital aspect of landscaping in La Mesa involves incorporating water features and hardscape elements. Water features like fountains or ponds provide a soothing ambience while serving as focal points within the landscape. On the other hand, hardscape elements like patios, walkways, or retaining walls offer both functionality and structure to the design. These elements should be strategically placed to ensure they complement rather than dominate the natural beauty of your chosen plants.

Popular Styles of Landscaping in La Mesa

Native and Xeriscape Landscaping

La Mesa, with its diverse climate and terrain, offers a unique opportunity for landscaping. One popular style is native landscaping which incorporates local plants such as the coastal sage scrub and chaparral. This approach not only creates a natural-looking landscape but also supports local biodiversity. Another popular style is xeriscaping, which focuses on drought-tolerant plants. Given La Mesa's semi-arid climate, xeriscaping is particularly practical as it conserves water while still providing an aesthetically pleasing garden.

Mediterranean and Modern Landscaping

Other residents of La Mesa prefer a more structured look to their gardens. The Mediterranean style is common amongst these choices, with features like terracotta pots, lavender bushes, olive trees, and decorative pebbles creating a relaxed yet vibrant outdoor space reminiscent of European landscapes. On the other hand, modern landscaping styles highlight geometric shapes and clean lines for a minimalist aesthetic. This could include elements like simple planters filled with succulents or ornamental grasses paired with modern outdoor furniture pieces to create an inviting but sleek garden space.

The Role of Climate and Geography in La Mesa Landscaping

Understanding La Mesa’s Climate

La Mesa, California is characterized by a warm-summer Mediterranean climate which greatly influences the types of plants that will thrive in the local landscaping. The region experiences hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters, necessitating plant species that can adapt to these conditions.

Influence on Plant Selection

Due to this specific climate type, drought-resistant plants and succulents are commonly used in La Mesa landscaping. These include various types of cacti, yuccas, agaves and other native Californian species that have adapted to survive long periods without water.

Geographical Considerations

La Mesa is situated at a higher elevation compared to its coastal neighbors. This geography factors into landscaping decisions as it can affect temperature ranges and wind patterns. Landscapers often consider these elements when designing outdoor spaces, choosing hardy plant species that can tolerate potential weather extremes.

Water Conservation Efforts

Because of California’s frequent drought conditions, water conservation is an important aspect of La Mesa landscaping.

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Many landscapes utilize xeriscaping methods - an approach that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental watering from irrigation.

The Role of Soil Composition

Lastly, the soil composition in La Mesa also plays a role in shaping local landscapes. The area's predominantly sandy or loamy soil impacts what plants will grow best here. Understanding soil conditions helps landscapers select the appropriate vegetation for successful growth and sustainability.

Evaluating the Cost and Investment for Landscaping in La Mesa

Understanding the Basics

When considering landscaping in La Mesa, it's essential to understand the costs and investment required. Landscaping can significantly enhance the aesthetic appeal of a property and increase its market value. However, it necessitates careful planning and budgeting.

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The price can vary depending on the size of your property, the complexity of your desired design, and the materials needed.

Materials & Labor Costs

Materials are a significant factor in determining landscaping costs. These include plants, trees, soil, mulch, decorative elements like stones or pavers etc. The quality and quantity of these materials contribute to overall expenses. Additionally, labor costs also play a vital role; they're calculated based on hours spent working on the project.

Maintenance Investment

Post-installation maintenance should also be considered alongside initial costs. Routine care such as pruning trees, mowing grasses or treating pests is crucial for maintaining an appealing landscape over time. Depending upon whether you hire professional services or do it yourself impacts ongoing investment.

Return on Investment (ROI)

Finally, while evaluating costs one must consider ROI as well—landscaping can potentially increase property value by up to 20%. A well-maintained landscape not only offers aesthetic pleasure but also contributes towards better energy efficiency by providing shade and reducing heat absorption. Thus making it worth every penny invested.

Steps to Design Your Own Landscape in La Mesa

Understanding Your Space

In the vibrant city of La Mesa, designing your own landscape begins with understanding the space you have. Taking note of your property size, soil type, and existing vegetation can help in planning a layout that will suit your environment. The climate in La Mesa is Mediterranean, hence plants like rosemary, lavender and agave thrive well.

Drafting a Plan

Next step involves drafting a rough sketch of your desired landscape design. Include locations for walkways, patios or decks, and positions for plant beds or trees. This plan doesn't need to be perfect but should act as a guide when you begin working on your landscape.

Selecting Plants

Choosing the right plants for your La Mesa garden is crucial. Consider factors such as how much sunlight each area gets throughout the day, how much water each plant needs and how large they'll grow over time. Native California plants such as manzanita or toyon could be excellent choices.

Installing Hardscapes

Hardscapes such as pathways, walls or water features often form an integral part of landscaping design. These features not only add aesthetic value but also improve functionality by defining spaces within your garden. Incorporating locally sourced stones can give a unique touch to these structures.

Maintenance Planning

Once you've designed and built your landscape in La Mesa, ongoing maintenance must be considered to keep it looking its best year-round. Regular watering schedules depending on plant species' needs and seasonal pruning are essential aspects of this process.

Maintaining and Upgrading Your Landscape in La Mesa

Maintaining Your Landscape in La Mesa

Maintaining a landscape in La Mesa is a year-round commitment that requires regular attention. Given the city's Mediterranean climate, certain plant species thrive better than others. Regular watering, pruning, and soil care are vital to ensure these plants flourish. Additionally, seasonal maintenance tasks such as leaf removal during fall and fertilization during spring should not be overlooked.

Upgrading Your Landscape in La Mesa

Upgrading your landscape can breathe new life into your outdoor space and increase the curb appeal of your home. In La Mesa, drought-tolerant landscapes featuring succulents and native California plants have gained popularity due to their low maintenance requirements and resilience to local climate conditions. Adding hardscape elements like patios or fire pits can also enhance the functionality of your landscape while providing a boost to property value. Remember that any upgrades should complement the existing features of your home and surrounding environment for best results.

Navigating Local Regulations for Landscaping in La Mesa

Understanding Local Regulations: Before starting any landscaping project in La Mesa, it's important to understand the local regulations. The city has specific codes to protect its unique ecosystem and residential areas. These guidelines help maintain the visual harmony of neighborhoods and promote sustainable practices.

Acquiring Necessary Permits: Obtaining necessary permits is a crucial step in the process. For certain types of projects, such as installing a water feature or constructing a retaining wall, permits may be required by the city. Failure to acquire them could lead to penalties or even demolition of your project.

Compliance with Water Restrictions:

Respecting Drought Measures

La Mesa often faces drought conditions, leading to water restrictions that impact landscaping choices. Homeowners are encouraged to use drought-tolerant plants and efficient irrigation systems to conserve water. Including these elements in your landscape design can not only save you money on utility bills but also ensure compliance with local regulations.

Working with Professionals:

Engaging Expert Help

Finally, working with professionals who are familiar with La Mesa’s landscaping regulations can simplify the process significantly. They can guide you through permit acquisition, suggest suitable plants for local climate conditions and ensure adherence to all guidelines for a stress-free landscaping experience.

Case Studies: Successful Landscapes Designs in La Mesa

Highlighting the Beauty of La Mesa

In the charming city of La Mesa, various landscaping projects have been successfully completed, enhancing its natural beauty. One such project was at the heart of downtown, where an understated park was transformed into a vibrant communal space. The landscape design company used native plants and sustainable materials to create a low-maintenance yet visually stunning environment that residents could enjoy year-round.

Innovative Residential Landscaping

On the residential front, one particular property stands out - a mid-century modern home in La Mesa's Eastridge neighborhood. Here, the landscape architects redesigned the outdoor living space to match the home's aesthetic while incorporating drought-tolerant plants and efficient irrigation systems. In doing so, they created an appealing outdoor setting that requires minimal water use and maintenance - an increasingly important consideration in California's semi-arid climate.

Eco-Friendly Commercial Spaces

Another notable case study involves a commercial property in La Mesa. A corporate office park sought to reduce its environmental impact while improving aesthetics and employee morale. With careful planning and implementation, the landscape designers introduced native plantings, water-saving irrigation technology, and strategically placed seating areas under mature shade trees for employees’ enjoyment during breaks. This project not only enhanced the property’s appearance but also contributed positively towards sustainability objectives.

Local Plants Suitable for a Landscape Project in La Mesa

Drought-Tolerant Plants

In La Mesa, California, a city characterized by its warm, arid Mediterranean climate, drought-tolerant plants are an excellent choice for landscaping projects. Native species such as the California sycamore, Toyon, and the Coast Live Oak can be found flourishing in many local gardens due to their ability to thrive with limited water.

Succulents and Cacti

Succulents and cacti are also ideal candidates for a La Mesa landscape project. Their unique shapes and vibrant colors can add visual interest while also being highly water-efficient. Varieties like Aloe Vera, Agave Americana, or the Golden Barrel cactus are both visually appealing and suitable for La Mesa's climate.

Native Wildflowers

For pops of color throughout your landscape design, consider incorporating native wildflowers. Species such as the California Poppy or Hummingbird Sage not only beautify your garden but also attract pollinators like bees and hummingbirds which contribute to a healthy local ecosystem.

Ground Covers

To combat soil erosion and reduce water loss through evaporation, using ground covers is essential in La Mesa's dry climate. Dymondia margaretae (Silver Carpet) or Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry) are great options that offer both aesthetic appeal and environmental benefits.

The Role of Sustainability within the realm of landscaping In la mesa.

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Embracing Eco-friendly Practices

The role of sustainability in landscaping La Mesa is becoming increasingly significant. Landscapers are embracing eco-friendly practices to conserve water, reduce waste, and promote biodiversity. These include using native plants that require less watering, implementing efficient irrigation systems, and recycling green waste into mulch or compost.

Promoting Biodiversity and Wildlife

Sustainable landscaping also plays a crucial role in promoting biodiversity and wildlife in La Mesa. By creating habitats for local fauna through the use of native plants, landscapers help maintain a balance in the local ecosystem. This not only benefits the environment but also enhances the natural beauty of the landscape.

Economic Benefits and Future Sustainability

Alongside environmental benefits, sustainable landscaping brings economic advantages to La Mesa residents as well. It reduces maintenance costs due to lower watering requirements and fewer pest problems, thanks to native plants’ adaptability. Moreover, it increases property values by enhancing aesthetic appeal. Looking towards future sustainability, these practices ensure that La Mesa’s unique landscapes can be enjoyed by generations to come.

14 . Tips from Professionals: Do's and Don'ts When Planning a Landscape Design.

Understanding Your Space

Start by thoroughly studying your La Mesa property. Consider the terrain, soil type, and exposure to sun and shade. Understand how different plants will thrive in different conditions. Don’t rush this process; a well-planned landscape design starts with a deep understanding of the existing environment.

Creating Balance

Do strive for balance in your design. This could mean balancing color, texture, or plant size. A mix of different elements can create visual interest and harmony. Avoid using too many similar plants as it may make your landscape look monotonous.

Prioritizing Functionality

Another important tip from professionals is to ensure your landscape serves a purpose. Do you want an area for entertaining? Or perhaps an outdoor play area for children? Make sure to incorporate these needs into your design plans right from the start. Don't overlook practical considerations like drainage or maintenance requirements.

Maintaining Sustainability

Choose plants that are native or adapted to La Mesa's climate. These will require less water and maintenance, making them more sustainable choices for landscaping in this region. Don't opt for exotic or non-native plants that may not thrive in local conditions.

Working with Professionals

Finally, do consider consulting with a professional landscaper if you're unsure about any aspect of your project. They have the knowledge and experience to guide you through each step of the design process, helping you avoid costly mistakes.

15 . Hiring a Professional vs DIY: Pros and Cons.

Pros of Hiring a Professional

Hiring a professional landscaper in La Mesa brings several advantages, primary among them being the quality of work. Professionals typically have years of experience and can bring your vision to life with precision and creativity that might be difficult to achieve on your own. Additionally, they are equipped with the necessary tools and knowledge about local plant species, weather conditions, and municipal regulations regarding landscaping projects.

Cons of Hiring a Professional

On the flip side, hiring professionals can be costly. Not only do you pay for their services but also for materials they provide. The lack of personal involvement may also lead to results that don't exactly meet your expectations or personal style. Moreover, scheduling conflicts could arise as most reputable landscape companies usually have multiple projects running concurrently.

DYI Landscaping: Pros and Cons

Going the DIY route for landscaping in La Mesa provides a sense of accomplishment and allows total control over the project. It could also save money if you already have some basic tools and knowledge about landscaping. However, DIY landscaping can be time-consuming and physically demanding. There's also a risk of making errors due to lack of expertise which could potentially result in additional costs or damage to your property.

16 . A Look into Future Trends for Landscaping In la mesa.

Embracing Sustainability

The future of landscaping in La Mesa is increasingly leaning towards sustainable practices. As climate change and environmental conservation become more important, landscapers are using drought-resistant plants and native species that require less water and maintenance. This shift towards eco-friendly landscaping is not only beneficial for the environment but also helps homeowners save on water bills.

Innovative Use of Technology

Innovative use of technology is another trend shaping the landscape industry in La Mesa. Landscaping professionals are incorporating smart irrigation systems, drone mapping for accurate landscape design, and advanced lighting solutions to enhance aesthetic appeal while reducing energy consumption. These technologies allow for more precise management of resources, ensuring optimal growth conditions for plants and minimal waste.

Integration of Outdoor Living Spaces

Lastly, the integration of outdoor living spaces with indoor ones is a growing trend in La Mesa's landscaping scene. Homeowners want their landscapes to serve as an extension of their homes, providing additional space for relaxation or entertainment. As such, landscapers are creating innovative designs featuring outdoor kitchens, cozy fire pits, or tranquil water features that blend seamlessly with the home's interior design.

17 . Managing Pests and Diseases Within Your Landscape.

Identification of Pests and Diseases

To effectively manage pests and diseases in your La Mesa landscape, the first step is identification. This requires a keen eye for detail and a basic understanding of common pests and plant diseases specific to the La Mesa region.

Preventive Measures

Secondly, preventive measures should be put in place to avoid pest infestations or disease outbreaks. These can include practicing proper sanitation by clearing fallen leaves and debris, maintaining healthy soil conditions, or using resistant plant varieties.

Pest Control Methods

If an infestation occurs, there are diverse control methods available. Natural pest control involves beneficial insects that feed on pests, while chemical control involves the use of pesticides. However, it’s important to use these chemicals sparingly as they can harm non-target species.

Disease Management Techniques

When it comes to managing plant diseases within your landscape in La Mesa, techniques such as pruning infected branches or applying organic fungicides can be effective solutions. However, always ensure you identify the correct disease before taking action.

Maintenance

Finally, regular maintenance plays a crucial role in managing pests and diseases within your landscape. Regular monitoring will help you notice any changes early enough to take necessary action before any serious damage occurs.

18 . Making Use Of Technology For Efficient Watering Systems.

Adopting Advanced Irrigation Technology

In the realm of landscaping in La Mesa, technology plays a pivotal role, particularly when it comes to efficient watering systems. Today’s advanced irrigation technologies include smart sprinkler systems and drip irrigation techniques that ensure water is delivered precisely where it's needed, reducing waste while promoting healthier plants. These systems are often programmable, allowing for watering schedules that adapt to the specific needs of your landscape and local weather conditions.

The Impact on Water Conservation

The use of these technologically-advanced watering systems does not only improve the aesthetics and health of your landscape but also significantly contributes to water conservation efforts in La Mesa. As Southern California grapples with ongoing drought conditions, employing an efficient watering system can make a considerable difference in overall water usage. Landscaping professionals can offer insights into the best tech-based solutions for individual yards or commercial properties, ensuring both beauty and sustainability are achieved.

19 . Incorporating Outdoor Living Spaces Into the Landscape Design.

Outdoor Living Spaces and Landscape Design

In La Mesa, the incorporation of outdoor living spaces into landscape design is becoming increasingly popular. This trend is driven by a desire to maximize the use and enjoyment of one's property by creating inviting spaces for relaxation and entertainment. These outdoor living areas often include features like patios, fire pits, outdoor kitchens, and pergolas. When incorporated into the overall landscape design, they can significantly enhance the aesthetic appeal of your property.

Challenges in Incorporating Outdoor Living Spaces

However, incorporating these outdoor living spaces comes with its own set of challenges. For instance, it requires careful planning to ensure that these areas blend seamlessly with the existing landscape while still meeting the practical needs of homeowners. Factors like sunlight exposure, privacy concerns, and maintenance requirements all need to be considered during the design process. Therefore, it's advisable to seek professional help from experienced landscapers in La Mesa who can guide you through this complex process and help you create an outdoor space that suits your lifestyle perfectly.

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Energy-efficient landscaping is a type of landscaping designed for the purpose of conserving energy. There is a distinction between the embedded energy of materials and constructing the landscape, and the energy consumed by the maintenance and operations of a landscape.

Terminology and definition

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Landscaping often refers to the practice of landscape design and gardening, which traditionally concern with designing sites with vegetation and craft for aesthetic, cultural, social, and religious purposes.

Landscape architecture and landscape engineering, on the other hand, are multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary professions that integrate technical considerations, such as geography, ecology, biology, and engineering, into the design of landscape and the actualization of it.

Energy-efficient landscaping falls into the categories of the latter, and it stresses the energy conservation in site operation or the creation of the site. Among its various term usage, energy-efficient landscaping can refer to the reduction of energy usage in maintenance and operation of the landscape narrowly for the user/owner of the site,[1][2] or broadly for the energy conservation of the global environment, such as mitigating urban heat island effect with reflective surface (increase albedo) or reducing the need of water treatment and sewage by using pervious pavement. Common methods of energy-efficient landscaping include reducing heat or cooling load of a building through shade, wind-blocking, and insulation; management of water; and using plants or construction material that cost less energy.

Methods and techniques

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Design techniques include:

Shade with trees

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Planting trees for the purpose of providing shade, which reduces cooling costs. The mature height of the trees and their canopy shape need to be well studied. The locations of the trees should be chosen based on their height and the height of the building. Also, when trees are planted closer to the windows or walls, they will provide shade for a greater portion of the day as the Sun keep changing its relative position to the window and the trees. Planting the trees too close to the building, however, is also not desirable, as it might create the danger of touching above-ground or underground utility lines.[2]

The type of leaves of the trees is also important. Broad-leaf evergreens like Southern magnolia can be used to provide dense year-round shade. However, needle-leaf evergreens like pines and cedars can provide more air circulation though their shade is sparser and more open.[2]

Not only can tree shade be used to reduce the cooling load in building, it can also be used in parking lot, driveways, and playgrounds.[3]

Windbreak

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Planting or building windbreaks to slow winds near buildings, which reduces heat loss. Homes loses heat through infiltration in the Winter. Windbreaks should be designed to intercept and redirect the Winter winds before they reach the house and outdoor areas with playgrounds or sensitive plants. The windbreak in the Winter should also be designed so that they would not block the sunlight in the Winder or block the wind in the Summer.[3]

Wall sheltering with shrubbery or vines

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Planting shrubs near the wall creates an insulating air space around the wall. This is a similar idea to the use of a tree windbreak. Shrubs should be planted at least 2 feet (0.61 m) from the wall to prevent moisture and insect problems.[2]

Taking advantage of natural landform

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Earth sheltering is an example of using natural landform and geological condition to save energy in building a structure. It is believed to save energy in multiple ways: by using the rock or strong

An Earth house by Peter Vetsch

soil as wall and ground as the floor, construction cost is greatly reduced, because the structure will need less load bearing material and there is no need for excavation and foundation construction; the wall and the floor made of natural material likely will have better insulation than artificial wall and floors; Natural walls and floors can also reduce fire hazard, because they are hard to be ignited thus reduce the need for flame retardants.[4]

In a study of simulating a structure with varying depth submerged in the ground to understand the insulating effect of natural wall and ground in cold climate,[5] it was found that the thermal transmittance of the earth-sheltered walls and floor is 16% - 45% lower than that of the structure totally above ground.

Other than Earth Sheltering, a simpler way of taking advantage of natural landform is using geology, such as mountains, for shade.

Green roofs

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Main article: Green roof

Often, landscape design and architecture refers to the design in ground surface; in many contexts, specifically, the design guidance and topics are for a typical residential landscape in suburban housing, where there is a yard (garden), a driveway, and a house. In the crowded urban area, however, there is not abundant ground surface for landscape design. Green roofs, then, become an appealing option to add some aesthetics and green to the crowded cities. Not limited to the cities, green roofs can be applied to wherever it will fit. Most of times, actually, the decision to build Green roofs is based on local climate and policy. It is because other than its aesthetics, green roofs are used often for their ability to conserve energy, such as increasing insulation of the building roof, retaining and infiltrating rainwater, and potentially reducing urban heat island effect when it was installed to a certain scale. In Germany, for example, partly because of EU's regulation, 17% of the new roof construction are green roofs. In Washington DC, green roofs are used as an alternative storm-water retention technique.[6]

Chicago City Hall Green Roof

Benefits

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Reducing building energy consumption by increasing the roof insulation: In total energy consumption reduction, green roof would have the best performance relative to a bare roof in a colder climate, which require nighttime heating. The reduction in heating load of the building increase as the soil depth of the green roof increase, though an increased soil depth would mean heavier roof. On the other hand, if a building is cooling-dominated, leaf area index is more important. In peak energy consumption reduction, green roof also has a notable effect, and the leaf area index and soil depth are both positively related to its performance.[7]

Rainwater retention and evapotranspiration: 3-4 inches of soil can retain about 1 inch of rainwater. That is about 75% of precipitation in most areas in United States.[8] By retaining the rainwater in soil, the water would not become runoff, instead they would result in evapotranspiration.

Controversies

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Water runoff quality: When green roof is not able to hold the amount of the precipitation, the excessive rainwater will become runoff. In a field experiment where contaminated water is dripped into a green roof section to mimic rainfall in the green roof, the exfiltrate water was studied and analyzed. It was found that since the average level of suspended solid, nitrogen, and phosphorus concentrations in Green roof water outflow is significantly higher than that in conventional roof outflow, extensive green roofs will become a source of nutrient contamination in urban water environment.[9]

Fire Hazard: Green roofs can be more easily ignited than conventional roofs; it is a concern that when the green roof caught fire, the high temperature would damage the roof structure itself. Not only the idea of damaging the roof is contradictory to energy conservation and sustainability, the fire and the roof damage could cause safety issue to the residents. It remains a matter of debate as to whether a green roof will exacerbate or mitigate the effects of a fire. Some argue that, because vegetation is about 95% water, the green roof actually reduces chances of a fire. On the other hand, some argue that during autumn and winter, when the vegetation is dry, fire hazard is increased. A recent study has found, through mathematical modelling, that [10] when the vegetation itself caught fire, heat does penetrate downward (rather slowly as the thermal conductivity of soil is low), eventually damaging the roof itself. Thus the key to whether ignited vegetation will damage the roof or not depends on the thickness of the soil. The study also found that by installing a gypsum layer beneath the soil layer, the possibility of damaging the roof can be greatly reduced.

Additional structural load: Most old buildings were not designed for the extra roof dead load of the green roofs. If more energy is consumed in building the additional load bearing structure for the green roofs than the energy saved through insulation enhancement and water retention, it would be contradictory to the idea of energy conservation. By study, common green roofs types in the market would increase the load on the rood by 1.2 to 2.43 kilo-newton per square meter.[11]

Pervious (porous/permeable) paving

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A lot pavement in urban and suburban areas is impervious, this likely would result the contaminated stormwater runoff. In pre-development area, averagely 50% of storm-water would result in evapotranspiration, 5% in runoff, and 45% in infiltration, whereas in post-development area, only 35% storm-water result in evapotranspiration, and 50% in runoff, and 15% in infiltration. This change has caused various problem, such as flooding, infrastructural damage due to rapid movement of water, and water contamination.[12]

By using pervious paving, however, the amount of infiltrated storm-water will be increased in post-development area, and the pollutants in the filtrated water can be reduced; thus the problem can be mitigated. In Low Impact Development 2008 Conference, ASCE performed two bench-scale study to examine the effectiveness of permeable interlocking concrete pavement in terms of water flow rate and the role of microbial colonies in pollutant removal in the micro-environment of porous pavement.[13] The experiment shows 84% relative total suspended solids (TSS) removal on average, yet the increased relative removal over time suggests there is potentially solid buildup, and that may result system clogging and system failure. The evidence in pollutant removal proved the conclusion of the previous study that the annual pollutant runoff from the driveways was 86% lower for pervious driveways than impervious driveways.

Types of Pervious pavement include:[12]

Porous asphalt

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Advantage: Relatively low cost; Easy access to the material; Workers are experienced with it

Disadvantage: Susceptible to water damage; Usually used for short-term only; Low relative strength

Pervious concrete

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Advantage: High structural strength; Easy access to the material

Disadvantage: Slow construction process; High initial cost

Permeable interlocking concrete paver

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Advantage: Ease of Construction, Aesthetics, Ease of maintenance and repair

Disadvantage: High Cost; Only can be used for low speed road way

Grid Pavement

Grid pavement

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Advantage: Wide variety of products; Relatively inexpensive; Ease of maintenance and repair

Disadvantage: Typically limited to parking areas

The decision among different permeable pavement types depends on the need of the project, available material and equipment, and budget.

Effective and smart lighting

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Site lighting with full cut off fixtures, light level sensors, and high efficiency fixtures.

Structure orientation

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The sun rises from the East, moves South, and sets in the West. Thus, a rule of thumb for design is to avoid south-facing windows when trying to decrease cooling load of the building and increase south-facing windows when trying to decrease heating load of the building. The reality, however, is more complicated. The sun rises from East and sets in West perfectly only on the autumnal and vernal equinoxes, and during the vast majority of the year, Sun travels slightly southward and eastward depending on whether it is summer or winter and on whether the observer is in the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere.[14]

To design for the best performance of the site, the designer needs to well understand the local climate and the site's location relative to equator.

More to include

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Energy-efficient landscaping techniques include using local materials, on-site composting and chipping to reduce green waste hauling, hand tools instead of gasoline-powered, and also may involve using drought-resistant plantings in arid areas, buying stock from local growers to avoid energy in transportation, and similar techniques.

Example

[edit]

In agreement with the city to build a resilient and sustainable landscape, Massachusetts Institute of Technology has initiated several energy efficiency upgrade projects, these projects include:

  • Planting trees and using the tree canopy to provide shade for pedestrians, which also would give students more incentive to walk
  • Landscape filters are added to (partly) treat rain water
  • Storm-water storage are installed to mitigate flood
  • Lighter color pavement for reducing heat island effect

See also

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Mansfield, Robyn (1996). "Energy efficient landscaping". Soft Technology: Alternative Technology in Australia (56): 24–25. ISSN 0810-1434.
  2. ^ a b c d DelValle, Terry B.; Bradshaw, Joan; Larson, Barbra; Ruppert, Kathleen C. (2008-07-09). "Energy Efficient Homes: Landscaping: FCS3281/FY1050, 6/2008". EDIS. 2008 (5). doi:10.32473/edis-fy1050-2008. ISSN 2576-0009. S2CID 245098464.
  3. ^ a b Hoeven, Gustaaf A. van der (November 1982). "Energy efficient landscaping". cite journal: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ "Earth-sheltered houses". Lowimpact.org. Retrieved 2021-12-15.[permanent dead link]
  5. ^ Berezin, D V (2019-12-01). "Earth-sheltering effect on dwelling in cold climate: simulation-based and theoretical approaches". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 687 (5): 055042. Bibcode:2019MS&E..687e5042B. doi:10.1088/1757-899x/687/5/055042. ISSN 1757-8981. S2CID 213946214.
  6. ^ Celik, Serdar; Morgan, Susan; Retzlaff, William A. (April 2010). "Energy Conservation Analysis of Various Green Roof Systems". 2010 IEEE Green Technologies Conference. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1109/GREEN.2010.5453802. ISBN 978-1-4244-5274-3. S2CID 23090814.
  7. ^ Sailor, David J.; Elley, Timothy B.; Gibson, Max (2011-09-13). "Exploring the building energy impacts of green roof design decisions – a modeling study of buildings in four distinct climates". Journal of Building Physics. 35 (4): 372–391. doi:10.1177/1744259111420076. ISSN 1744-2591. S2CID 108512300.
  8. ^ Johnson, Peter (Sep 2008). "Green Roof Performance Measures" (PDF).
  9. ^ Liu, Wen; Wei, Wei; Chen, Weiping; Deo, Ravinesh C.; Si, Jianhua; Xi, Haiyang; Li, Baofeng; Feng, Qi (September 2019). "The impacts of substrate and vegetation on stormwater runoff quality from extensive green roofs". Journal of Hydrology. 576: 575–582. Bibcode:2019JHyd..576..575L. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.06.061. ISSN 0022-1694. S2CID 197576248.
  10. ^ Gerzhova; Blanchet; Dagenais; Côté; Ménard (2019-09-19). "Heat Transfer Behavior of Green Roof Systems Under Fire Condition: A Numerical Study". Buildings. 9 (9): 206. doi:10.3390/buildings9090206. hdl:20.500.11794/66393. ISSN 2075-5309.
  11. ^ Cascone, Stefano; Catania, Federico; Gagliano, Antonio; Sciuto, Gaetano (May 2018). "A comprehensive study on green roof performance for retrofitting existing buildings". Building and Environment. 136: 227–239. Bibcode:2018BuEnv.136..227C. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.03.052. ISSN 0360-1323.
  12. ^ a b "Permeable Pavements" (PDF). Pervious Pavement.
  13. ^ Rowe, Amy A.; Borst, Michael; O'Connor, Thomas P. (2012-04-26). "Pervious Pavement System Evaluation". Low Impact Development for Urban Ecosystem and Habitat Protection. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1061/41009(333)25. ISBN 9780784410097.
  14. ^ "Building Orientation for Optimum Energy". www.nachi.org. Retrieved 2021-12-16.

 

A river with functional (flood preventing) engineering (in Houston, Texas)
A canal design focused on esthetical landscape architecture (in Stockholm, Sweden) for comparison.

Landscape engineering is the application of mathematics and science to shape land and waterscapes. It can also be described as green engineering, but the design professionals best known for landscape engineering are landscape architects. Landscape engineering is the interdisciplinary application of engineering and other applied sciences to the design and creation of anthropogenic landscapes. It differs from, but embraces traditional reclamation. It includes scientific disciplines: agronomy, botany, ecology, forestry, geology, geochemistry, hydrogeology, and wildlife biology. It also draws upon applied sciences: agricultural & horticultural sciences, engineering geomorphology, landscape architecture, and mining, geotechnical, and civil, agricultural & irrigation engineering.

Landscape engineering builds on the engineering strengths of declaring goals, determining initial conditions, iteratively designing, predicting performance based on knowledge of the design, monitoring performance, and adjusting designs to meet the declared goals. It builds on the strengths and history of reclamation practice. Its distinguishing feature is the marriage of landforms, substrates, and vegetation throughout all phases of design and construction, which previously have been kept as separate disciplines.

Though landscape engineering embodies all elements of traditional engineering (planning, investigation, design, construction, operation, assessment, research, management, and training), it is focused on three main areas. The first is closure planning – which includes goal setting and design of the landscape as a whole. The second division is landscape design more focused on the design of individual landforms to reliably meet the goals as set out in the closure planning process. Landscape performance assessment is critical to both of these, and is also important for estimating liability and levels of financial assurance. The iterative process of planning, design, and performance assessment by a multidisciplinary team is the basis of landscape engineering.

Source: McKenna, G.T., 2002. Sustainable mine reclamation and landscape engineering. PhD Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada 661p.

Example

[edit]

An example of contemporary landscape engineering and natural resources management related to the Biosphere 2 and seawater farming projects, is the IBTS Greenhouse, formerly the Forest City designed for the Emirate of Ras al Khaimah. The IBTS rests on a thoroughly integrated design with more than 340 different engineering, science and technology disciplines. It was created for desert greening of hot, arid deserts and optimized for fresh water production from saline, or brackish water. The Integrated Biotectural System is based on a wetland, more specifically a mangrove eco-system designed for food and fodder production of 80tons per hectare and year, also called mariculture. The atmosphere inside the IBTS is turned into a potent water source and harvested with a combination of condensation utilities which makes it a more energy efficient desalination facility than industrial plants. It can produce 500.000m3 of distilled water per day while reclaiming 1000ha of hot arid desert lands. The electricity for the desalination is produced by an on-site forest of micro wind turbines located on the same footprint. These numbers are important because the performance data of for-profit engineered landscapes like wetlands for wastewater treatment or agro-ecological farming sites distinguishes technically feasible from financially and ecologically beneficial projects.

The IBTS is an example for sustainable landscape design that reclaims and recreates productive ecosystems including seawater farming, aquaculture, farming, forestry and residence for a human population. It has become feasible because of the design of a Bedouin Greenhouse-shape, automatic construction and maintenance of the vast membrane Sky-roof. The up-front and operational cost could thus be reduced so far that entire landscapes can be covered permanently, not in a common greenhouse fashion, but with an architectural structure that allows for a real-size forest and urban development below the Sky-roof.

The inherent concepts of the IBTS can be used to engineer, terra-form and activate deserts and other landscapes with harsh conditions. In 2015 the governor of Alaska received an offer for a fully self-sufficient multi-residence housing project based on the concepts developed for the IBTS project and adopted for arctic climate by the developer TS Prototype-Creation.

Irrigation engineering degree founder

[edit]
Main article: Louis George Carpenter

The father of the first irrigation engineering degree in the Americas was Louis George Carpenter (March 28, 1861 – September 12, 1935) He was a college professor and later the Dean of engineering & physics at Colorado State University formerly known as the Colorado Agricultural College.[1] He was also an engineer, mathematician and an irrigation and consulting engineer.[2][3]

It was there where Carpenter began the first organized and systematic college program for irrigation engineering starting in 1888. Those completing such instruction were awarded a bachelor of science degree in irrigation engineering.[4][5][6]

Carpenter was one of the foremost leading experts on irrigation systems. During his life he investigated irrigation systems not only in North America but also in Canada and Europe. This led to his engineering consulting and water law. He became Colorado's state engineer which he held for several years while still teaching.[6] Carpenter was involved in not only in irrigation engineering but consulting on hydraulic construction projects and the problems associated with such projects.[6][7]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Guide to the papers of Louis G. Carpenter, Colorado State University
  2. ^ Lamb's biographical dictionary of the United States, Volume 1 - Page 575 by John Howard Brown. James H. Lamb Company. 1900. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  3. ^ "Carpenter, Louis George, educator". The twentieth century biographical dictionary of notable Americans ... Volume 2 of The twentieth century biographical dictionary of notable Americans by Rossiter Johnson, John Howard Brown - published by the Biographical Society. 1904. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  4. ^ De Puy, William Harrison (1908). "Carpenter, Louis George, engineer". The world-wide encyclopedia and gazetteer: Compiled and revised to Date from the leading encyclopedias of the world. A dictionary of Arts, sciences and literature, to which is added biographies of living subjects, One hundred colored Maps and numerous illustrations, William Harrison De Puy - Volume 9 - Page 720 - published by The Christian Herald. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  5. ^ "Carpenter, Louis George, engineer". New American supplement to the New Werner Twentieth Century Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica ... Illustrated with Hundreds of Portraits and Other Engravings, Volume 2 New American Supplement to the New Werner Twentieth Century Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica ... Illustrated with Hundreds of Portraits and Other Engravings - published by the Werner Company. 1905. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  6. ^ a b c "Papers of Louis G. Carpenter, 1892-1910 - Carpenter, L. G. (Louis George), 1861-1935". Colorado State University. 1935. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
  7. ^ "Guide to the papers of Louis G. Carpenter - Prepared by Holley R. Lange; updated by Patricia J. Rettig". Colorado State University Water Resources Archive - A joint effort of the University Libraries and the Colorado Water Institute. 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2015.

 

Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.
Impervious surfaces surrounding Madison, Wisconsin
Canopy cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]

As a highly interdisciplinary field in systems science, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][5][6]

The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability.[7] Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger epidemics.[8][9]

Terminology

[edit]

The German term Landschaftsökologie – thus landscape ecology – was coined by German geographer Carl Troll in 1939.[10] He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.

Explanation

[edit]

Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms.[11] Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.[12] Geomorphology is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.

History

[edit]

Evolution of theory

[edit]

One central landscape ecology theory originated from MacArthur & Wilson's The Theory of Island Biogeography. This work considered the biodiversity on islands as the result of competing forces of colonization from a mainland stock and stochastic extinction. The concepts of island biogeography were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of habitat by Levins' metapopulation model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape[13]). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing conservation biologists a new tool to assess how habitat fragmentation affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of geographic information systems (GIS)[14] and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. remotely sensed datasets).

Development as a discipline

[edit]

Landscape ecology developed in Europe from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in North America.[when?] While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as ecosystems, populations, species, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts.[15]

By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman[16] and Forman and Godron.[17][18] Forman[6] wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.

Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and models. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes.[5] An example would be determining the amount of carbon present in the soil based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps, vegetation types, and rainfall data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by Janet Franklin.

Definitions/conceptions of landscape ecology

[edit]

Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of ecology (subdiscipline of biology; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the interdisciplinary study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the integrated view of geography (in conceptions 1, 5, and 6):[19]

  1. Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units (e.g. Neef School[20][21]): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural sciences.
  2. Topological ecology at the landscape scale[22][23] 'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide human scale of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use issues.
  3. Organism-centered, multi-scale topological ecology (e.g. John A. Wiens[24][25]): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape.
  4. Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation (e.g. Urban et al.[26]): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems.
  5. Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities (e.g. Leser;[27] Naveh;[28][29] Zonneveld[30]): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the 'total human ecosystem' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres.
  6. Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes (frequently pursued in practice[31] but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard;[32] Trepl[19]): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop lifeworldly landscapes. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use.

Relationship to ecological theory

[edit]

Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general ecology theory is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of spatial patterns.[33]

Important terms

[edit]

Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.

Landscape

[edit]
Main article: Landscape

Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:[19] Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space.[34] Ernst Neef[20][21] defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michel Godron,[22] a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens[24][25] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes".[25][35] Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity.[15]

Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)

[edit]
Main articles: Scale (geography) and Spatial heterogeneity

A main concept in landscape ecology is scale. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth.[36] Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process,[33] or amount of spatial resolution.[6] Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, composition refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. Structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.[33] Pattern is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.[17]

A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial heterogeneity, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape.[6] Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well.[37]

Patch and mosaic

[edit]
See also: Patch dynamics

Patch, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings.[6] Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.[6]

Matrix is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is.[6] For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. Corridors have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides.[6] A network is an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.[6]

Boundary and edge

[edit]
Main article: Edge effect

Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy.[15] The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the boundary.[6] Edge means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance.[6] For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.[33]

Ecotones, ecoclines, and ecotopes

[edit]
Main articles: Ecotone, Ecocline, and Ecotype

A type of boundary is the ecotone, or the transitional zone between two communities.[12] Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a forest.[12] The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include fencerows, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, occurrence of a spatial community mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.[38]

An ecocline is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones.[39] An ecotope is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes.[6] Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.

Disturbance and fragmentation

[edit]
Main articles: Disturbance (ecology) and Habitat fragmentation

Disturbance is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system. Fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels.[6] Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.

An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and disconnected.[40]

Theory

[edit]

Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes.[16] Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape.[15] Landscape ecology theory includes the landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances, recovery from disturbances, and promoting total system stability.[17] This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape.

Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity.[5] Analysis of land use change has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes.[18] There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach (Bastian 2001).

An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of drainage basins, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps.[6] Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales.[33] Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an invasive species due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's habitat requirements.[33]

Application

[edit]

Research directions

[edit]

Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve environmental problems.[5] The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.[33] Multivariate analysis techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), or detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), for classifying vegetation. Gradient analysis is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).[41]

Climate change is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology.[42] Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under climate change scenarios, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat.[38] Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway.[43] The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole.

Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe.[44][45] Landscapes may become substitutes for biodiversity measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.[46]

Land change modeling

[edit]

Land change modeling is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in land use. Land change models are used in urban planning, geography, GIS, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape.[47] In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from deforestation or the expansion of urban areas.[48]

Relationship to other disciplines

[edit]

Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to land change science, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of landscape limnology. Seascape ecology is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology.[49] In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as agriculture and forestry. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems.[18]

In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry.[50] Landscape ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of fisheries biology as a distinct biological science discipline,[51] and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in hydrology.[39] It has helped shape integrated landscape management.[52] Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods.[53]

Landscape ecology has also been combined with population genetics to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time[54] and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation.[55] After the term was coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010,[56] and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions,[57] many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing biodiversity loss.[58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Wu J (January 2006). "Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science". Landscape Ecology. 21 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-7195-2. S2CID 27192835.
  2. ^ a b Wu J, Hobbs R, eds. (2007). Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^ Wu J (2008). "Landscape ecology.". In Jorgensen SE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ecology. Oxford: Elsevier.
  4. ^ Leser H, Nagel P (2001). "Landscape diversity — a holistic approach". Biodiversity. Springer. pp. 129–143. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06071-1_9. ISBN 978-3-642-08370-9.
  5. ^ a b c d Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001). Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Forman RT (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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