How to Mulch Like a Pro in El Cajon

How to Mulch Like a Pro in El Cajon

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Choosing the Right Mulch for Your El Cajon Garden


Choosing the right mulch for your El Cajon garden can be a tad bit baffling task! How to Transform a Basic Patio in El Cajon . Heck, there are so many options available that it becomes a real headache to decide. But dont you worry, we got you covered!


Firstly, its essential to understand what mulch is, right? I mean, we cant just jump in without knowing the basics. So, mulch, in laymans terms, is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Its main functions are to conserve moisture, improve the fertility and health of the soil, and reduce weed growth. Sounds pretty helpful, doesnt it?


Now, when it comes to choosing the perfect mulch for your El Cajon garden, a lot depends on what kind of plants youre growing. For instance, if youre growing acid-loving plants, pine needles (also known as pine straw) would be an excellent choice. Why, you ask? Well, pine needles tend to make the soil more acidic over time.


On the other hand, if youre growing a vegetable garden, straw or grass clippings would be a better option. Theyre easy to apply, break down quickly, and enrich the soil with nutrients as they decompose. But dont go using grass clippings if your lawn is treated with chemicals, alright? Its not just bad for the vegetables, but also for the environment!


Oh, and dont forget about wood chips! Theyre great for paths and play areas. Theyre also pretty good for shrubs and perennials. They decompose slowly, which means less work for you in the long run. But its crucial not to pile them against tree trunks or plant stems, as it can lead to rot.


In the end, it all boils down to your specific needs and preferences. Theres no one size fits all when it comes to mulching. So, take your time, do your research, and make an informed decision. And remember, mulching is not a one-time thing; its a process that requires regular upkeep.


So, what are you waiting for? Get out there, choose the right mulch for your El Cajon garden, and start mulching like a pro!

The Best Time to Apply Mulch in El Cajon


If youre wondering whens the best time to do your mulching in El Cajon (and I know a lot of folk are curious about this), its not as complicated as you might think!


First off, there aint no one-size-fits-all answer here. It really depends on what youre aiming for with your garden. If youre trying to keep your soil toasty during El Cajons mild winters, youd want to apply the mulch in late autumn or early winter. However, if your goals to keep the ground cool and conserve water during our hot, often drought-stricken summers, then late springs your best bet!


Now, dont go thinking you can just dump a pile of mulch and call it a day (although I wish it were that simple!). Mulching, my friends, requires a certain finesse. About 2-4 inches of mulch should be enough. Any more than that, and youd risk suffocating your plants and encouraging pests to take up residence. Oh, and remember not to pile mulch against the base of your plants. Thats a big no-no!


Also, its important to consider the type of mulch youre using. Organic mulches, like wood chips or straw, are great for improving soil quality over time, but they wont last forever. Youd need to replace or replenish them every year. On the other hand, inorganic mulches, such as rocks or rubber, dont need to be replaced as often, but they dont enhance your soil either.


So, in conclusion, the best time to apply mulch in El Cajon is either late autumn/early winter or late spring, depending on your specific gardening needs. But remember, mulching is more than just a seasonal task. Its a commitment, and one thatll pay off in spades if you do it right! Happy mulching, everyone!

Step-by-Step Guide to Applying Mulch Like a Pro


If youre looking to mulch like a pro in El Cajon, youve come to the right place! This step-by-step guide is intended to help you learn the ropes (or, in this case, the mulch).


First off, youve got to select the right mulch for your garden. Theres a vast variety out there (youd be surprised!), but in El Cajon, organic mulch, such as wood chips or compost, tends to be the best choice. Its not just about what looks good, its about whats best for your soil and plants.


Next, youve got to prep your garden bed.

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Dont skip this step, its crucial! Remove any weeds (those pesky things!), debris, and old mulch. If you dont, youre just making a comfy home for pests and diseases.


Then, its time to apply the mulch. But hold on, dont just dump it all in one place. Spread it evenly across your garden bed. Make sure its not too thin or too thick, about 2-4 inches is just right.


Heres a pro tip: Dont mulch right up against the base of your plants or trees. It can cause rot and create a haven for pests. So, leave a little space around them.




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Lastly, water the mulch. It helps it settle in, and itll start doing its job right away.

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Uh-oh, youre probably thinking, "What if I mess up?" Dont fret, mistakes are part of the process. The good thing about mulching is, its not permanent. If you put down too much, you can always remove some. If its too thin, add more.


So, there you have it, your step-by-step guide to mulching like a pro in El Cajon. Its not rocket science, but it does require some effort and attention. But hey, your garden will thank you for it! So, roll up your sleeves and get to it. Happy mulching!

Maintenance and Care Tips for Your Mulched Garden


In the business of making your garden stand out in El Cajon, mulching is a practice thats not just necessary, but essential. The trick however, lies not just in mulching, but in maintaining and caring for your mulched garden like a pro!


Firstly, one thing you neednt do is ignoring the type of mulch you are using. There are different types of mulches - organic and inorganic. Organic mulch (like straw, grass clippings, compost or wood chips) enriches the soil as it decomposes. Inorganic mulch (like stones or rubber) doesnt decompose but its longer lasting. Based on your gardens needs, choose wisely!


Secondly, dont just throw your mulch around! Its important to spread it evenly. A layer of 2-3 inches is usually sufficient. If you spread it too thick, water might not reach the soil. On the other hand, if its too thin, weeds might sprout. So, you see, its a delicate balance!


Thirdly, keep in mind that mulch isnt a one-time job. Mulch decomposes over time, especially organic mulch. Dont let your garden go naked! Regularly check the thickness of your mulch and top it off when necessary.

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Also, remember, mulch should not touch the base of plants or trees. This can lead to a damp environment that encourages disease and pest infestation. Uh-oh, thats not what we want, right? So, keep a buffer zone around your plants.


Lastly, water your mulch after application. This helps it to settle and prevents it from blowing away. But, dont overwater! Too much water can lead to water logging and can harm your plants.


In conclusion, mulching is an art. Its not just about spreading some stuff on the ground. Its about understanding your gardens needs, choosing the right mulch, applying it properly and maintaining it. So, dont just mulch, mulch like a pro!

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A landscape engineer is a person that is enlightened in the field of landscape style. The method of landscape architecture consists of: site analysis, website supply, site preparation, land preparation, planting style, grading, tornado water management, sustainable layout, construction requirements, and making certain that all strategies fulfill the existing building ordinance and neighborhood and federal regulations. The technique of landscape architecture dates to a few of the earliest of human cultures and equally as much as the practice of medication has been inimical to the varieties and common worldwide for numerous millennia. However, this short article examines the modern-day career and academic self-control of those exercising the style of landscape architecture. In the 1700s, Humphry Repton explained his occupation as "landscape gardener" on business cards he had actually prepared to represent him in job that currently would be described as that of a landscape designer. The title, "landscape designer", was initially used by Frederick Regulation Olmsted, the designer of New york city City's Central Park in Manhattan and various jobs of large scale both public and exclusive. He was the founder of a firm of landscape designers that employed very skilled experts to design and perform facets of jobs developed under his auspices. Depending upon the territory, landscape engineers who pass state demands to come to be registered, accredited, or accredited might be qualified to make use of the postnominal letters representing their seal, usually RLA (Registered Landscape Engineer) or a lot more lately, PLA (Specialist Landscape Architect) n. In the US, all 50 states have adopted licensure. The American Culture of Landscape Architects endorses the postnominal letters PLA, for Specialist Landscape Architect, despite the fact that there is no lawful or specialist difference between the use of RLA or PLA.

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Business card for eighteenth century landscape architect Humphry Repton, by Thomas Medland
Landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux and the team they gathered to execute the Greensward Plan, their 1858 design for Central Park in Manhattan, photographed in 1862 at the park standing on the pathway atop the span of the Willowdell Arch (from the left: Andrew Haswell Green, George Waring, Vaux, Ignaz Anton Pilat, Jacob Wrey Mould, and Olmsted)

A landscape architect is a person who is educated in the field of landscape architecture. The practice of landscape architecture includes: site analysis, site inventory, site planning, land planning, planting design, grading, storm water management, sustainable design, construction specification, and ensuring that all plans meet the current building codes and local and federal ordinances.[1]

The practice of landscape architecture dates to some of the earliest of human cultures and just as much as the practice of medicine has been inimical to the species and ubiquitous worldwide for several millennia. However, this article examines the modern profession and educational discipline of those practicing the design of landscape architecture.

In the 1700s, Humphry Repton described his occupation as "landscape gardener" on business cards he had prepared to represent him in work that now would be described as that of a landscape architect.

The title, "landscape architect", was first used by Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City's Central Park in Manhattan and numerous projects of large scale both public and private. He was the founder of a firm of landscape architects who employed highly skilled professionals to design and execute aspects of projects designed under his auspices.

Depending on the jurisdiction, landscape architects who pass state requirements to become registered, licensed, or certified may be entitled to use the postnominal letters corresponding to their seal, typically RLA (Registered Landscape Architect) or more recently, PLA (Professional Landscape Architect) n.[2] In the US, all 50 states have adopted licensure.[3] The American Society of Landscape Architects endorses the postnominal letters PLA, for Professional Landscape Architect, even though there is no legal or professional distinction between the use of RLA or PLA.[4]

Australia

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The Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA) states that "Landscape Architects research, plan, design, and advise on the stewardship, conservation, and sustainability of development of the environment and spaces, both within and beyond the built environment".[5] This definition of the profession of landscape architect is based on the International Standard Classification of Occupations, International Labour Office,[6] Geneva.

Markdale Garden at Binda near Crookwell, New South Wales, Australia, designed by Edna Walling

Some notable Australian landscape architects include Catherin Bull,[7][8] Kevin Taylor,[9] Richard Weller, Peter Spooner,[10] Sydney based writer and designer (Doris) Jocelyn Brown,[11] Grace Fraser,[12] Bruce Mackenzie,[13][14] Mary Jeavons,[15] Janet Conrad,[16] Dr Jim Sinatra,[17] William Guilfoyle, Ina Higgins, Edna Walling, and Ellis Stones.

To become a recognised professional landscape architect in Australia, the first requirement is to obtain a degree in landscape architecture accredited by the Australian Institute of Landscape Architects. After at least two years of recognised professional practice, graduates may submit for further assessment to obtain full professional recognition by AILA.

Canada

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The Canadian Society of Landscape Architects (CSLA) is the country's professional association of landscape architects.[18] Some notable Canadian landscape architects include Cornelia Oberlander,[19] Claude Cormier,[20] Peter Jacobs, Janet Rosenberg,[21] Marc Ryan, and Michael Hough.[22]

United Kingdom

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The Landscape Institute is the recognised body relating to the field of Landscape Architecture throughout the United Kingdom. To become a recognised landscape architect in the UK takes approximately seven years. To begin the process, one has to study an accredited course by the Landscape Institute to obtain a bachelor's degree in landscape architecture or a similar field. Following this one must progress onto a postgraduate diploma in the field of landscape architecture covering the subject in far greater detail such as mass urban planning, construction, and planting. Following this, the trainee must complete the Pathway to Chartership,[23] a challenging program set out by the Landscape Institute. Following this, one is awarded a full landscape architect title and membership among the Chartered Members of the Landscape Institute (CMLI).

United States

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Drawing of plan for an entrance to Central Park in Manhattan by Richard Morris Hunt (American, 1827–1895) c. 1863

The United States is the founding country of the formal profession entitled landscape architecture. Those in this field work both to create an aesthetically pleasing setting and also to protect and preserve the environment in an area. In the U.S., a need to formalize the practice and a name for the profession was resolved in 1899 with the formation of the American Society of Landscape Architects. A few of the many talented and influential landscape architects who have been based in the United States are: Frederick Law Olmsted, Beatrix Farrand, Jens Jensen, Ian McHarg, Thomas Church, Arthur Shurtleff, Ellen Biddle Shipman John Nolen, Lawrence Halprin, Charles Edgar Dickinson, Iris Miller, and Robert Royston.

Royston summed up one American theme:

Landscape architecture practices the fine art of relating the structure of culture to the nature of landscape, to the end that people can use it, enjoy it, and preserve it.

Work scope

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The following is an outline of the typical scope of service for a landscape architect:[24]

An example of landscape architecture: the Italian Garden, Gardens of the world, Berlin-Marzahn, Germany
The Fountain Terrace at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, D.C., designed by landscape architect Beatrix Farrand in 1921, was opened to the public in 1939.
  1. Developing new or improved theories, policy, and methods for landscape planning, design, and management at local, regional, national, and multinational levels
  2. Developing policies and plans and implementing and monitoring proposals for conservation and recreation areas such as national parks
  3. Developing new or improved theories and methods to promote environmental awareness and undertaking planning, design, restoration, management, and maintenance of cultural and historic landscapes, parks, sites, and gardens.
  4. Planning, design, management, maintenance, and monitoring functional and aesthetic layouts of built environment in urban, suburban, and rural areas including private and public open spaces, parks, gardens, streetscapes, plazas, housing developments, burial grounds, memorials; tourist, commercial, industrial and educational complexes; sports grounds, zoos, botanic gardens, recreation areas, and farms
  5. Contributing to the planning, aesthetic and functional design, location, management, and maintenance of infrastructure such as roads, dams, wind farms, and other energy and major development projects
  6. Undertaking landscape assessments including environmental and visual impact assessments to prepare policies or inform new developments
  7. Inspecting sites, analyzing factors such as climate, soil, flora, fauna, surface and subsurface water and drainage; and consulting with clients and making recommendations regarding methods of work and sequences of operations for projects related to the landscape and built environment
  8. Identifying and developing appropriate solutions regarding the quality and use of the built environment in urban, suburban, and rural areas and making designs, plans, and working drawings, specifications of work, cost estimates, and time schedules
  9. Monitoring the realisation and inspecting the construction of proposals to ensure compliance with plans, specifications of work, cost estimates, and time schedules
  10. Conducting research, preparing scientific papers, and technical reports, developing policy, teaching, and advising on aspects regarding landscape architecture such as the application of geographic information systems, remote sensing, law, landscape communication, interpretation, and landscape ecology
  11. Project management of large scale landscape planning and design projects including management of other consultants such as engineers, architects, and planners
  12. Acting as an expert witness in development and environment courts

Further reading

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  • What is Landscape Architecture American Society of Landscape Architects profiles landscape architecture
  • Exploring Landscape Architecture Interviews with Australian landscape architects discussing their work
  • AILA Celebrates 50 Years. History of landscape architecture in Australia
  • Kerb 15. Landscape Urbanism. Launched by Charles Waldheim, April 2007. Content includes articles and interviews from Charles Waldheim, Mohsen Mostafavi, Alejandro Zaera-Polo (FOA), Kathryn Gustafson, Bart Brands, and Richard Weller

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "What Is Landscape Architecture? | asla.org". www.asla.org. Archived from the original on 2021-11-11. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
  2. ^ "Licensed to Design: PLA". The Field. American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). 27 August 2012. Archived from the original on 14 September 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
  3. ^ "LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS ARE LICENSED IN ALL 50 STATES AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA", American Society of Landscape Architects. "Become a Landscape Architect". www.asla.org. Archived from the original on 2021-09-14. Retrieved 2021-09-14.
  4. ^ "Professional Licensure: Universal Designation" (PDF). Washington, DC: American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-14. Retrieved 2021-09-14.
  5. ^ "Home". Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA). Archived from the original on 2017-07-26. Retrieved 2009-03-03.[incomplete short citation]
  6. ^ International Labour Force (2012). "International Standard Classification of Occupations" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-03-05. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
  7. ^ "Prof Catherin Bull". Find an Expert. The University of Melbourne. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
  8. ^ "Dr Catherin Bull AM". Archived from the original on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2017-12-15.
  9. ^ "A tribute to Kevin Taylor". ArchitectureAU. Archived from the original on 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2018-02-10.
  10. ^ "Peter Spooner: Architect shaped attitudes to landscape design". 10 November 2014. Archived from the original on 26 September 2017. Retrieved 26 September 2017 – via The Sydney Morning Herald.
  11. ^ Proudfoot, Helen. "Brown, Doris Jocelyn (1898–1971)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Archived from the original on 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2017-09-26 – via Australian Dictionary of Biography.
  12. ^ LATREILLE, ANNE (July 30, 2010). "Pioneering Australian landscape architect, Grace Fraser". The Age. Retrieved July 21, 2024.
  13. ^ "Bruce and Stuart Mackenzie". landscapeaustralia.com.
  14. ^ "Design With Landscape by Bruce Mackenzie on iBooks". iBooks. Archived from the original on 2017-11-21. Retrieved 2017-09-26.
  15. ^ Salt, Lucy (20 July 2020). "Dedicated to play: Mary Jeavons". Landscape Australia. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020.
  16. ^ Smith, Lawrie (30 August 2021). "Remembering Janet Conrad, landscape architect". Landscape Australia. Archived from the original on 30 August 2021.
  17. ^ "Jim Sinatra". Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA). Archived from the original on 2022-09-15. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
  18. ^ "About CSLA". CSLA Canadian Society of Landscape Architects/Association des architectes paysagistes du Canada. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  19. ^ Green, Penelope (June 9, 2021). "Cornelia Oberlander, a Farsighted Landscape Architect, Dies at 99". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  20. ^ Bozikovic, Alex (January 2, 2022). "Dogs, pink umbrellas and wedding photos: Claude Cormier's artful places for people". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  21. ^ Bozikovic, Alex (November 21, 2014). "Fort York: Toronto's most historic site gets a 21st-century upgrade". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 21 August 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  22. ^ Lorinc, John (September 9, 2022). "Clear-cutting Michael Hough's landscaping at Ontario Place". spacing. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  23. ^ "About PPE". Landscape Institute. Archived from the original on 15 September 2008.
  24. ^ Australian Institute of Landscape Architects: March 2005
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Media related to Landscape architects at Wikimedia Commons

 

Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.
Impervious surfaces surrounding Madison, Wisconsin
Canopy cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]

As a highly interdisciplinary field in systems science, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.[2][5][6]

The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scales, and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability.[7] Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger epidemics.[8][9]

Terminology

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The German term Landschaftsökologie – thus landscape ecology – was coined by German geographer Carl Troll in 1939.[10] He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.

Explanation

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Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms.[11] Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.[12] Geomorphology is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.

History

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Evolution of theory

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One central landscape ecology theory originated from MacArthur & Wilson's The Theory of Island Biogeography. This work considered the biodiversity on islands as the result of competing forces of colonization from a mainland stock and stochastic extinction. The concepts of island biogeography were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of habitat by Levins' metapopulation model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape[13]). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing conservation biologists a new tool to assess how habitat fragmentation affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of geographic information systems (GIS)[14] and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. remotely sensed datasets).

Development as a discipline

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Landscape ecology developed in Europe from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in North America.[when?] While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as ecosystems, populations, species, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts.[15]

By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman[16] and Forman and Godron.[17][18] Forman[6] wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.

Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and models. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes.[5] An example would be determining the amount of carbon present in the soil based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps, vegetation types, and rainfall data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by Janet Franklin.

Definitions/conceptions of landscape ecology

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Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of ecology (subdiscipline of biology; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the interdisciplinary study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the integrated view of geography (in conceptions 1, 5, and 6):[19]

  1. Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units (e.g. Neef School[20][21]): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural sciences.
  2. Topological ecology at the landscape scale[22][23] 'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide human scale of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use issues.
  3. Organism-centered, multi-scale topological ecology (e.g. John A. Wiens[24][25]): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape.
  4. Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation (e.g. Urban et al.[26]): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems.
  5. Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities (e.g. Leser;[27] Naveh;[28][29] Zonneveld[30]): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the 'total human ecosystem' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres.
  6. Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes (frequently pursued in practice[31] but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard;[32] Trepl[19]): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop lifeworldly landscapes. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use.

Relationship to ecological theory

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Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general ecology theory is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and abiotic processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of spatial patterns.[33]

Important terms

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Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.

Landscape

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Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:[19] Carl Troll conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a harmonic individuum of space.[34] Ernst Neef[20][21] defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an anthropocentric and relativistic way. According to Richard Forman and Michel Godron,[22] a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. John A. Wiens[24][25] opposes the traditional view expounded by Carl Troll, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes".[25][35] Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more ecosystems in close proximity.[15]

Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)

[edit]

A main concept in landscape ecology is scale. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth.[36] Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process,[33] or amount of spatial resolution.[6] Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, composition refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of forest or wetland, the length of forest edge, or the density of roads can be aspects of landscape composition. Structure is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while function refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.[33] Pattern is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.[17]

A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial heterogeneity, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape.[6] Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well.[37]

Patch and mosaic

[edit]

Patch, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings.[6] Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called patch dynamics. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements.[6]

Matrix is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of connectivity. Connectivity is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is.[6] For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity. Corridors have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides.[6] A network is an interconnected system of corridors while mosaic describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.[6]

Boundary and edge

[edit]

Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy.[15] The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the boundary.[6] Edge means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive species composition or abundance.[6] For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a grassland, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent.[33]

Ecotones, ecoclines, and ecotopes

[edit]

A type of boundary is the ecotone, or the transitional zone between two communities.[12] Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a lakeshore, or can be human-created, such as a cleared agricultural field from a forest.[12] The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include fencerows, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as riparian zones in forests. Characteristics of ecotones include vegetational sharpness, physiognomic change, occurrence of a spatial community mosaic, many exotic species, ecotonal species, spatial mass effect, and species richness higher or lower than either side of the ecotone.[38]

An ecocline is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones.[39] An ecotope is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes.[6] Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.

Disturbance and fragmentation

[edit]

Disturbance is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system. Fragmentation is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels.[6] Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.

An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and disconnected.[40]

Theory

[edit]

Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes.[16] Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape.[15] Landscape ecology theory includes the landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances, recovery from disturbances, and promoting total system stability.[17] This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape.

Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity.[5] Analysis of land use change has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes.[18] There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach (Bastian 2001).

An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of drainage basins, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps.[6] Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales.[33] Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an invasive species due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's habitat requirements.[33]

Application

[edit]

Research directions

[edit]

Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve environmental problems.[5] The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.[33] Multivariate analysis techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), or detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), for classifying vegetation. Gradient analysis is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).[41]

Climate change is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology.[42] Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under climate change scenarios, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat.[38] Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway.[43] The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole.

Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe.[44][45] Landscapes may become substitutes for biodiversity measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.[46]

Land change modeling

[edit]

Land change modeling is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in land use. Land change models are used in urban planning, geography, GIS, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape.[47] In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from deforestation or the expansion of urban areas.[48]

Relationship to other disciplines

[edit]

Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to land change science, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of landscape limnology. Seascape ecology is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology.[49] In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as agriculture and forestry. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems.[18]

In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry.[50] Landscape ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of fisheries biology as a distinct biological science discipline,[51] and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in hydrology.[39] It has helped shape integrated landscape management.[52] Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods.[53]

Landscape ecology has also been combined with population genetics to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time[54] and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation.[55] After the term was coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010,[56] and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions,[57] many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing biodiversity loss.[58]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Wu J (January 2006). "Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science". Landscape Ecology. 21 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/s10980-006-7195-2. S2CID 27192835.
  2. ^ a b Wu J, Hobbs R, eds. (2007). Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^ Wu J (2008). "Landscape ecology.". In Jorgensen SE (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ecology. Oxford: Elsevier.
  4. ^ Leser H, Nagel P (2001). "Landscape diversity — a holistic approach". Biodiversity. Springer. pp. 129–143. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-06071-1_9. ISBN 978-3-642-08370-9.
  5. ^ a b c d Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001). Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Forman RT (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  7. ^ Wu & Hobbs 2002
  8. ^ Bloomfield LS, McIntosh TL, Lambin EF (2020-04-01). "Habitat fragmentation, livelihood behaviors, and contact between people and nonhuman primates in Africa". Landscape Ecology. 35 (4): 985–1000. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-00995-w. hdl:2078.1/243632. ISSN 1572-9761. S2CID 214731443.
  9. ^ Bausch DG, Schwarz L (2014-07-31). "Outbreak of ebola virus disease in Guinea: where ecology meets economy". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 8 (7): e3056. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003056. PMC 4117598. PMID 25079231.
  10. ^ Troll C (1939). "Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung" [Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth]. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde (in German). Berlin: 241–298.
  11. ^ Turner MG (1989). "Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 20: 171–197. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001131.
  12. ^ a b c Allaby M (1998). Oxford Dictionary of Ecology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ Banaszak J, ed. (2000). Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz, Poland: Bydgoszcz University Press. p. 313.
  14. ^ Steiniger S, Hay GJ (September 2009). "Free and open source geographic information tools for landscape ecology" (PDF). Ecological Informatics. 4 (4): 183–95. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2009.07.004.
  15. ^ a b c d Sanderson J, Harris LD, eds. (2000). Landscape Ecology: A Top-Down Approach. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: Lewis Publishers.
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  17. ^ a b c Forman RT, Godron M (1986). Landscape Ecology. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
  18. ^ a b c Ryszkowski L, ed. (2002). Landscape Ecology in Agroecosystems Management. Florida, USA: CRC Press, Boca Raton.
  19. ^ a b c Kirchhoff T, Trepl L, Vicenzotti V (February 2013). "What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions". Landscape Research. 38 (1): 33–51. doi:10.1080/01426397.2011.640751. S2CID 145421450. All the following quotations and descriptions come from this source.
  20. ^ a b Neef E (1967). Die theoretischen Grundlagen der Landschaftslehre [The theoretical basics of landscape science] (in German). Gotha: Haack.
  21. ^ a b Haase G (1990). "Approaches to, and methods of landscape diagnosis as a basis of landscape planning and landscape management". Ekológia. 9 (1): 31–44.
  22. ^ a b Forman RT, Godron M (November 1981). "Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology". BioScience. 31 (10): 733–40. doi:10.2307/1308780. JSTOR 1308780.
  23. ^ Forman RT, Godron M (1986). Landscape ecology. NY: Wiley.
  24. ^ a b Wiens JA, Milne BT (December 1989). "Scaling of 'landscapes' in landscape ecology, or, landscape ecology from a beetle's perspective". Landscape Ecology. 3 (2): 87–96. doi:10.1007/BF00131172. S2CID 15683804.
  25. ^ a b c Wiens JA (1999). "The science and practice of landscape ecology.". In Klopatek JM, Gardner RH (eds.). Landscape ecological analyses: Issues and applications. NY: Springer. pp. 371–383.
  26. ^ Urban DL, O'Neill RV, Shugart Jr HH (February 1987). "A hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns" (PDF). BioScience. 37 (2): 119–27. doi:10.2307/1310366. JSTOR 1310366.
  27. ^ Leser H (1991). Landschaftsökologie. Ansatz, Modelle, Methodik, Anwendung. Stuttgart: Ulmer.
  28. ^ Naveh Z, Lieberman AS (1984). Landscape ecology. Theory and application. NY: Springer.
  29. ^ Naveh N (2000). "What is holistic landscape ecology? A conceptual introduction". Landscape and Urban Planning. 50 (1–3): 7–26. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00077-3.
  30. ^ Zonneveld IS (1995). Land ecology: an introduction to landscape ecology as a base for land evaluation, land management and conservation. Amsterdam: SPB.
  31. ^ However, not always under the designation 'landscape ecology', but as part of landscape stewardship, landscape architecture and, first and foremost, environmental or urban and landscape planning.
  32. ^ Hard G (1973). Die Geographie. Eine wissenschaftstheoretische Einführung. Berlin: deGruyter. pp. 92–95.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g Turner MG, Gardner RH, eds. (1991). Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag.
  34. ^ Troll C (2007). "The geographic landscape and its investigation.". In Wiens JA, Moss MR, Turner MG, Mladenoff DJ (eds.). Foundation papers in landscape ecology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 71–101. First published as: Troll C (1950). "Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung". Studium Generale. Vol. 3. pp. 163–181. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-38240-0_20. ISBN 978-3-662-37475-7. cite book: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  35. ^ Wiens JA (2005). "Toward a unified landscape ecology". In Wiens JA, Moss MR (eds.). Issues and perspectives in landscape ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–373.
  36. ^ Malczewski J (1999). GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
  37. ^ Wirth E, Szabó G, Czinkóczky A (2016-06-07). "Measure of Landscape Heterogeneity by Agent-Based Methodology". ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. III-8: 145–151. Bibcode:2016ISPAnIII8..145W. doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-iii-8-145-2016. ISSN 2194-9042.
  38. ^ a b Walker S, Wilson JB, Steel JB, Rapson GL, Smith B, King WM, Cottam YH (August 2003). "Properties of ecotones: evidence from five ecotones objectively determined from a coastal vegetation gradient". Journal of Vegetation Science. 14 (4): 579–90. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02185.x.
  39. ^ a b Attrill MJ, Rundle SD (December 2002). "Ecotone or ecocline: ecological boundaries in estuaries". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 55 (6): 929–36. Bibcode:2002ECSS...55..929A. doi:10.1006/ecss.2002.1036.
  40. ^ Green DG, Klomp NI, Rimmington GR, Sadedin S (2006). Complexity in Landscape Ecology. Amsterdam: Springer. Archived from the original on 2008-06-19. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  41. ^ Lyon J, Sagers CL (September 1998). "Structure of herbaceous plant assemblages in a forested riparian landscape". Plant Ecology. 138 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1023/A:1009705912710. S2CID 28628830.
  42. ^ Ochoa-Hueso R, Delgado-Baquerizo M, King PT, Benham M, Arca V, Power SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 129: 144–152. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. hdl:10261/336676. S2CID 92606851.
  43. ^ Löffler J, Finch OD (November 2005). "Spatio-temporal gradients between high mountain ecosystems of central Norway". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 37 (4): 499–513. doi:10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0499:sgbhme]2.0.co;2. S2CID 131326887.
  44. ^ Ellis, Erle C.; Gauthier, Nicolas; Klein Goldewijk, Kees; Bliege Bird, Rebecca; Boivin, Nicole; Díaz, Sandra; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Gill, Jacquelyn L.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; Locke, Harvey; McMichael, Crystal N. H.; Ranco, Darren; Rick, Torben C.; Shaw, M. Rebecca (2021-04-27). "People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (17): e2023483118. doi:10.1073/pnas.2023483118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 8092386. PMID 33875599.
  45. ^ Wilson JB, King WM (August 1995). "Human-mediated vegetation switches as processes in landscape ecology". Landscape Ecology. 10 (4): 191–6. doi:10.1007/BF00129253. S2CID 772430.
  46. ^ Dangerfield JM, Pik AJ, Britton D, Holmes A, Gillings M, Oliver IA, Briscoe D, Beattie AJ (June 2003). "Patterns of invertebrate biodiversity across a natural edge". Austral Ecology. 28 (3): 227–36. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.01240.x.
  47. ^ National Research Council (2014). Advancing Land Change Modeling: Opportunities and Research Requirements. National Academies Press. pp. Chapter 1. doi:10.17226/18385. ISBN 978-0-309-28833-0.
  48. ^ University of Maryland. "GLCF: Global Land Cover Change". glcf.umd.edu. Archived from the original on 2019-06-09. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
  49. ^ Pittman SJ, ed. (2017). Seascape Ecology. Wiley & Sons.
  50. ^ Boyce SG (1995). Landscape Forestry. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
  51. ^ Magnuson JJ (February 1991). "Fish and fisheries ecology". Ecological Applications. 1 (1): 13–26. doi:10.2307/1941844. JSTOR 1941844. PMID 27755677.
  52. ^ Sayer J (2009). "Reconciling conservation and development: are landscapes the answer?". Biotropica. 41 (6): 649–652. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00575.x. S2CID 85171847.
  53. ^ Shaker RR (September 2015). "The well-being of nations: an empirical assessment of sustainable urbanization for Europe". International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology. 22 (5): 375–87. doi:10.1080/13504509.2015.1055524. S2CID 154904536.
  54. ^ Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (April 2003). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 18 (4): 189–197. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9. S2CID 2984426.
  55. ^ Storfer A, Murphy MA, Evans JS, Goldberg CS, Robinson S, Spear SF, et al. (March 2007). "Putting the "landscape" in landscape genetics". Heredity. 98 (3): 128–42. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800917. PMID 17080024.
  56. ^ Storfer A, Murphy MA, Spear SF, Holderegger R, Waits LP (September 2010). "Landscape genetics: where are we now?". Molecular Ecology. 19 (17): 3496–514. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04691.x. PMID 20723061. S2CID 16435893.
  57. ^ Balkenhol N, Cushman S, Storfer A, Waits L (2015-11-09). Landscape Genetics: Concepts, Methods, Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118525296.
  58. ^ Manel S, Holderegger R (October 2013). "Ten years of landscape genetics". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 28 (10): 614–21. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2013.05.012. PMID 23769416.
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Landscape planning is a branch of landscape architecture. According to Erv Zube (1931–2002) landscape planning is defined as an activity concerned with developing landscaping amongst competing land uses while protecting natural processes and significant cultural and natural resources. Park systems and greenways of the type designed by Frederick Law Olmsted are key examples of landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners analyze broad issues as well as project characteristics which constrain design projects.

Landscape planners may work on projects which are of broad geographical scope, concern many land uses or many clients or are implemented over a long period of time. As an example, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.

In Europe

[edit]

Alberti wrote on the need for town squares for markets and specific implementations to make most use of the space.[1] In North Europe this developed into the idea that residential squares should be planned around green spaces. The first space of this type was the Place des Vosges. Residential squares were also made in Britain and their planning developed into the idea of incorporating public open space (public parks within towns). Frederick Law Olmsted gave momentum to this idea with his proposal for a park systems in Boston - the famous Emerald Necklace. Patrick Abercrombie took up this idea and incorporated it in his great 1943-4 Open Space Plan for the County of London. An example of landscape planning in use is the plans of RWE in the wake of its mining operations and how they plan to use leftover detritus and soil in their re-cultivation efforts to restore the damaged ecosystems and landscapes created by open pit mines (e.g. Garzweiler surface mine).[2]

In the US

[edit]

In the United States, landscape architects provide landscape planning services focused on the natural environment along with urban planners. But, unlike Canada and Europe, the US does not have a national land use planning system. Frederick Law Olmsted and Ian McHarg are two influential American landscape architects that also worked as planners. McHarg's work on overlay landscape planning contributed to the development of GIS and to the foundation of ESRI by Jack Dangermond.

Legislation

[edit]

The principles of landscape planning are now incorporated in various types of legislation and policy documents. In America, the National Environmental Policy Act was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg on Environmental impact assessment. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships between development and the landscape. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. The Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have extensive impacts on the landscape. They have been planned to a degree but future monitoring of the project is likely to show that better landscape planning and design would have been possible.

Methodology

[edit]

The conventional planning process is a linear progression of activities. The common steps are:

  • Identification of problems and opportunities.
  • Establishment of goals.
  • Inventory and analysis of the biophysical environment.
  • Human community inventory and analysis.
  • Development of concepts and the selection of options.
  • Adoption of a plan.
  • Community involvement and education.
  • Detailed design.
  • Plan implementation.
  • Plan administration.

Landscape planning not always means an ecological planning method, for that it must be considered that "planning is a process that uses the scientific and technical information for considering and reaching consensus on a range of choices. Ecology is the study of the relationship of all living things, including people, to their biological and physical environments. Ecological planning then may be defined as the use of biophysical and sociocultural information to suggest opportunities and constraints for decision making about the use of landscape". (Steiner, 1991) While the common steps are listed above, the process of Landscape planning is adaptable to many situations and is useful in many ways depending on the goals for which it is used.

Impacts and implications

[edit]

Results of proper implementations of landscape planning practices are not only limited to more functional landscapes. It can also influence for the better many aspects of the environment and community in which it is used to its potential. While the chief purpose of landscape planning is for ecological reasons it can impact so much more when used effectively as a tool.

Ecology

[edit]

Landscape planning is mainly used for ecological purposes and functions best when the result of the planning process is the least amount of interruption of ecological factors from before the implementation ever went into place.[3] In this practice landscape planning can be used to not only maintain the status of the existing environment, but also can be used to improve aspects of previously under performing ecosystems, for example, designing to increase biodiversity. For example Landscape planning could be used to create additional habitat for endangered species, and reclamation of previously used or depleted lands (e.g. old agricultural spaces) for expansion of natural ecosystems.[4] This also includes planning in order to reduce the impact of the changes to the environment. with proper landscape planning, a greater speed of recovery for the ecosystems of interrupted spaces is achievable.

Health

[edit]

Similar to the impacts of healing gardens, the positive healing effects of proper implementations of planned landscapes are of great benefit. When people are exposed to nature, they would find that their overall mood had improved and that they recover from stress and illness at an accelerated rate. With the proper use of landscape planning, health within an urban leaning environment in regards to stress and recovery can be greatly improved above the unplanned alternative.[5] When landscape planning is used to properly conserve ecological systems that may have been displaced, it makes it so recreational use of the environment is maintained while conserving the systems for people to enjoy.

Use of other technologies in context

[edit]

The development of GIS technology such as those developed by ESRI, have great import to the practice of Landscape planning. Use of assisting technology allows for the conditions and factors existing in a landscape to be easily aggregated and analyzed. Through the use of GIS technology you are able to answer many of the questions about a landscape that is in question. such as, "how functional is this landscape?" or "to what extent do the factors outside of the site affect the planning that needs to be done?"[6] The use of technology that is developing with greater and greater accuracy has the ability to make sustainable developments easier and more common across the globe.

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  • Landscape planning education in America: retrospect and prospect
  • Ecological design and planning George F. Thompson and Frederick R. Steiner, (Wiley, 1997)
  • Landscape planning : an introduction to theory and practice Hackett, Brian (Oriel, 1971)
  • Landscape planning and environmental impact design Tom Turner (2nd ed UCL Press, 1998)
  • Design with nature Ian L. McHarg ( Wiley, 1992)
  • The living landscape: an ecological approach to landscape planning Steiner, Frederick R. (McGraw-Hill College, 1991)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Madanipour, Ali (2003-09-02). Public and Private Spaces of the City. Routledge. ISBN 1134519850.
  2. ^ RWE. "Recultivating open-cast mines". www.group.rwe. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
  3. ^ Seddon, George (1986-01-01). "Landscape planning: a conceptual perspective". Landscape and Urban Planning. 13: 335–347. doi:10.1016/0169-2046(86)90051-4. ISSN 0169-2046.
  4. ^ Rookwood, Paul (1995-02-01). "Landscape planning for biodiversity". Landscape and Urban Planning. 31 (1): 379–385. doi:10.1016/0169-2046(94)01064-F. ISSN 0169-2046.
  5. ^ Grahn, Patrik; Stigsdotter, Ulrika (2003). "Landscape planning and stress" (PDF). Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 2: 1–18. doi:10.1078/1618-8667-00019.
  6. ^ Steinitz, Carl (1994). "A framework for theory and practice in landscape planning". Ekistics; Athens. 61: 364–365. ProQuest 232565095 – via ProQuest.
[edit]

 

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Reviews for Rock N Block - Turf N Hardscapes - San Diego


Corbin Occhino

(5)

TL;DR It was a bumpy road to get to the finish line but when we got there, it was sooooo worth it. Go with Rock-n-Block, you won't regret it. Their initial backyard renovation didn't end up how we hoped it would. The team came back multiple times to do repairs but couldn't get it right. *ENTER Greg Zamora*. He comes over, walks into the backyard, looks around and says "we'll fix it". Dude wasn't joking. Rock-n-Block bought all new blocks, capstones, lights, etc and sent a huge crew to the house. They demoed everything and rebuilt it all. They even let us make a few minor changes to the initial design for free (changed shape of the retaining wall and added more lights under the capstones). Three and a half days later we got the backyard we had dreamed of. Everything is perfect. Shout-out to Gus and Miguel and their crew, they killed it! Guys were here early, worked hard, were meticulous, and cleaned up at the end of each day. Watching how much time they put into the grouting and how exact the stone cuts were, we new it was going to end well this time. Greg checked in multiple times to make sure we were happy with the progress and that we had no questions/concerns. Open communication, excellent quality of work, and ACTUALLY meaning it when they say "we aren't done until you are happy". To be honest, we were really surprised our backyard renovation story ended this way after the initial install. Had someone asked us a month ago if we would recommend Rock-n-Block we would have shook our head but NOW....not only would we recommend them, if we do any other yard renovations, they will be the first people we call.

Md dc

(5)

From Omar's initial consultation to Andrew's design expertise, Rock N Block made the entire process easy. The patio looks amazing! I love the turf, rock decorations, and everything else they did. The key was their attention to details, me and my family are very happy with their work!

Ying Xu

(5)

I interviewed a number of contractors and decided to use Rock N Block for my backyard project. Andrew was the project manager who came to my house to make an initial estimate, and he followed up with me every step of the way. Although I had to wait 3 weeks for my project to begin, there was no further delay from that point on. The crew showed up punctually at 7am every morning, and did the work exactly as described. The were able to finish the project from concrete demolition to final cleanup within 4 days. I would happily recommend this business to my neighbors.

Paco Healy

(5)

really good experience working with Greg and Eric they were both great from start to finish. they both were great communicators and took a lot of pride in their craft. my backyard was an eye sore and now it’s a whole new inviting space. our pup loves it too. thank you and Block team. highly recommended

Nikki White

(5)

Greg was super helpful and knowledgeable. The process was super quick and easy and communication about the turf project was great. I’m sooooo happy with how my front yard looks! I find myself just looking at how amazing it looks now!

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